Claiming Innocence in Psalm 44:22

The Hebrew Psalter contains many expressions of human suffering and divine lament, yet few verses capture the tension between covenant faithfulness and suffering as powerfully as Psalm 44:22: “Because of you we are being killed all day long, and accounted as sheep for the slaughter.” This provocative statement has resonated through the ages, from its inclusion in New Testament theology to its repeated use during the Shoah (1939–1945), when Jewish communities saw in these ancient words a voice for their modern suffering (Craven 2003: 790). The verse’s lasting significance calls for careful scholarly study of its origins, historical background, and theological message.

This study offers a detailed analysis of Psalm 44:22, focusing on three key questions: Who wrote this psalm? What historical events led to its creation? What theological and liturgical goals did the original author aim to achieve? By examining textual evidence, historical links, and comparative studies, this research aims to shed light on the specific context of the psalm’s origin and its wider significance for understanding ancient Israelite theodicy and communal lament traditions.

Authorship

The Korahite Hypothesis

The superscription of Psalm 44 in The New Interpreter’s Study Bible reads “To the leader. Of the Korahites. A Maskil,” providing the main textual evidence for Korahite authorship (Craven 2003: 789). However, this attribution raises complex questions about the exact identity and geographic origins of the Korahites, prompting significant scholarly debate.

J. Maxwell Miller’s influential work “The Korahites of Southern Judah” offers a geographical method for identifying the Korahites. Based on his analysis of 1 Chronicles 12:1–9, Miller initially suggests that “since these Korahites were apparently Benjaminites by ancestry, they must have been called Korahites because of the locality of their birth” (Miller 1970: 66).

However, Miller admits there are notable weaknesses in this theory, noting that the genealogical lists in 1 Chronicles 12:1–9 include individuals “both precede and follow the Korahites in this are also identified by names otherwise unknown–except in connection with the hill country of southern Judah or the Calebites who dwelt there.” This evidence prompts Miller to propose an alternative hypothesis placing the Korahites in southern Judah, specifically in the Hebron region among the Calebites (Miller 1970: 66).

The Levitical Connection

David Mitchell offers a compelling counter-argument in “God Will Redeem My Soul from Sheol,” advocating for the Levitical identification of the Korahites. Mitchell acknowledges the possibility of Benjaminite origins but argues that substantial biblical evidence supports Levitical classification. His argument rests on four key points: “(1) the Bible’s only mention of the sons of Korah refers to this clan (Numbers 26:11); (2) Korah the Levite is the only Korah whose story is told in detail; (3) the Korahite Levites were musicians and singers in the temple cult; and (4) the Korah Psalms actually refer to their functions as singers and gatekeepers (Mitchell 2006: 367). This convergence of textual and functional evidence provides strong support for Levitical authorship.

The historical narrative of Korah the Levite further illuminates the Korahites’ subsequent role in Israelite religious life. Korah’s rebellion against Moses and Aaron, motivated by his pursuit of “priestly equality” with Aaron’s lineage, resulted in his dramatic death when he and his followers were “swallowed up into the earth” (Numbers 26:10). Following this divine judgment, “as the Aaronides later consolidated their priestly power in the hierarchy of the Jerusalem Temple, the Korahites were reduced to peripheral cultic roles” (Craven 2003: 788). This relegation explains the subsequent identification of the sons of Korah with temple musicians, singers, bakers, and gatekeepers (Miller 1970: 67–68).

The Historical Context

Date

Establishing the historical context for Psalm 44 involves significant methodological challenges. The Korahites played active roles in Israelite religious life from the Mosaic period until the destruction of the Second Temple, a span of about five centuries. As John Calvin noted centuries ago, “almost any date after the exile would fit, ‘for after the return of the Jews from the captivity of Babylon, they were scarcely ever free from severe afflictions’” (Lawrence 1996: 856). Despite this chronological uncertainty, modern scholarship has identified two historical periods as the most likely contexts for the psalm’s composition.

Sennacherib’s Campaign (701 B.C.E.)

The initial historical context focuses on Sennacherib’s military campaign against Judah in 701 B.C.E. During this time, King Hezekiah of Judah formed an alliance with Egypt (Grayson 1992: 5:1088), and under pressure from the Assyrians, he took the gold and silver from the temple to pay tribute to the Assyrian king (Mariottini 2003: 556). However, this attempt at appeasement failed to stop Sennacherib’s advance. The Assyrian king sent his army along with high-ranking officials to Jerusalem, where they tried to persuade the residents to surrender by pointing out their successful conquests of nearby territories. According to Assyrian records, Sennacherib “first conquered 46 cities and many villages in Judah before attacking Jerusalem (Mariottini 2003: 556). The crisis peaked when King Hezekiah sought advice from the prophet Isaiah, who recommended resistance. Soon afterward, divine intervention destroyed the Assyrian forces overnight, forcing them to retreat back to Assyria (2 Kings 19:6–7).

While Jerusalem’s deliverance might seem to contradict the psalm’s tone of abandonment, the widespread destruction throughout Judah could have provided sufficient cause for communal lament. The devastation of forty-six cities and numerous villages would have created profound grief among Jerusalem’s inhabitants, many of whom likely had familial connections to the destroyed communities. However, the fact that Hezekiah’s desecration of the temple through his tribute payment potentially compromised the community’s innocence raises questions about this historical correlation, given the psalm’s emphatic claims of righteousness.

The Maccabean Revolt (2nd Century B.C.E.)

The second proposed context, supported more strongly by scholars and rabbinical tradition, places the psalm’s origin during the religious persecution before the Maccabean Revolt in the second century B.C.E. (Lawrence 1996: 856). Under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Palestinian Jews experienced systematic suppression of their religious practices as part of an enforced Hellenization program. The king banned circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other core Jewish traditions. Most notably, the Jerusalem Temple was desecrated and turned into a pagan shrine. The Jewish community’s reactions varied: some begrudgingly complied to avoid persecution, while others chose martyrdom over abandoning their faith. These actions ultimately sparked the revolt led by Mattathias and his sons Uriel (Rappaport 1992: 434).

This historical context more closely aligns with the psalm’s theological claims, especially its assertion of communal innocence. The systematic religious persecution driven by external forces, rather than from internal covenant violations, supports the psalmist’s argument that the community’s suffering was undeserved. The eventual triumph of the Maccabean resistance, leading to Jewish political independence and religious renewal, also reflects the psalm’s deep trust in eventual divine intervention.

Communal Liturgical Function

Psalm 44’s literary structure reveals its intended function as a communal rather than individual composition. The text employs a call-and-response format characteristic of temple worship, where a leader would recite portions for congregational response. This antiphonal structure serves multiple theological and social functions: it validates shared experience of suffering, prevents the isolation that individual lament might produce, and reinforces communal identity in crisis.

Theological Innovation: Divine Accountability

The classification of Psalm 44 as a Maskil (teaching psalm) signals its didactic purpose beyond mere expression of grief. As Nancy deClaissé-Walford observes in “Psalm 44: O God, Why Do You Hide Your Face?”, while the psalm teaches multiple lessons, verse 22 specifically instructs that “God can and should be held to account” (deClaissé-Walford 2007: 756-757). This theological position represents a significant innovation within Israel’s lament tradition. Unlike most communal laments that acknowledge human culpability, Psalm 44 explicitly places responsibility for the community’s suffering on divine action or inaction.

The psalm’s theological boldness becomes particularly evident in verse 22’s direct attribution of causality: “Because of you we are being killed all day long.” This formulation challenges conventional Deuteronomistic theology, which correlates faithfulness with blessing and unfaithfulness with punishment. The psalmist’s assertion of innocence creates a theological crisis that demands divine response, effectively inverting the typical dynamic of human accountability before God.

Covenant Theology and Hope

Despite its harsh accusations, Psalm 44 ends with a plea for divine intervention, highlighting the community’s persistent covenant faith. This shift from complaint to request reveals the psalm’s core theological goal: not to abandon the covenant, but to hold God accountable for covenant obligations. The community’s continued plea for divine mercy, even while asserting divine responsibility for their suffering, shows a mature faith capable of maintaining the relationship despite what seems to be divine failure.

Conclusion

This analysis shows that Psalm 44:22’s strong critique of divine action most likely originated with the Korahites of the tribe of Levi, whose historical shift to minor cultic roles after Korah’s rebellion gave them both the musical skills and possibly the theological motivation to craft such a bold communal lament. Although the exact historical context is still debated, the evidence points to either Sennacherib’s campaign of 701 B.C.E. or, more likely, the religious persecution before the Maccabean Revolt as the driving force behind its composition.

The psalm’s theological importance goes beyond its historical origins. Through verse 22’s clear assignment of responsibility to God, the author presented a complex theodicy that challenges simple links between righteousness and prosperity. The communal liturgical setup ensured that this theological struggle happened within a supportive community, preventing the isolation and despair that might come from individual confrontation with divine silence.

Ultimately, whether written during Sennacherib’s conquest of Judah or Antiochus’s religious persecution, Psalm 44 reflects answered prayer. In both historical situations, divine intervention eventually saved the faithful community, confirming the psalm’s core trust that God would fulfill covenant promises even during times of apparent abandonment. This historical vindication, along with the psalm’s ongoing liturgical use over thousands of years, demonstrates its lasting theological and pastoral significance for communities facing the mystery of undeserved suffering.

Claude Mariottini
Emeritus Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Craven, Toni, “Psalms’” In The New Interpreter’s Study Bible. Edited by Walter J. Harrelson. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003.

deClaissé-Walford, Nancy L. “Psalm 44: O God, Why Do You Hide Your Face?” Review and Expositor 104 (2007): 745-759.

Grayson, A. Kirk. “Sennacherib.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 5 (1992): 1088-1089.

Lawrence, Michael E. Psalms. In The New Interpreter’s Bible. Vol. 4. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996.

Mariottini, Claude F. ‘Commentary Notes for 2 Kings.’ In The New Interpreter’s Study Bible. Edited by Walter J. Harrelson. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003.

Miller, J. Maxwell. “The Korahites of Southern Judah.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 32 (1970): 58-68.

Mitchell, David C. “God Will Redeem My Soul from Sheol: The Psalms of the Sons of Korah.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 30 (2006): 365-384.

Rappaport, Uriel. “Maccabean Revolt,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary 4 (1992): 433-439.